The Battle of Thermopylae [1] 480 B.C.

"The fox knows many tricks; but the hedgehog has a great one." { πόλλ οιδ αλώπηξ, αλλ εχινος εν μέγα }
Archilochus, c650 B.C.

<<PREVIOUS

46 nations, under thirty Persian generals, were assembled for the invasion of Greece, five of whom where sons of the royal house. On the arrival of Xerxes at Thermopylae, he found that the place was defended by a body of three hundred Spartans and about seven thousand hoplites from other states, commanded by the Spartan King Leonidas.

Xerxes sent a spy ahead. He learning about the small number of Greek forces and that several Spartans outside the walls that were exercising and combing their hair, he had taken accurate note of everything, he rode back quietly, for no one pursued after him, nor paid any heed to his visit, though they had seen him. So he returned, and told Xerxes all that he had seen. Xerxes, immediately called Demaratus to explain him the meaning of all these. Demaratus told him that the Spartans will defend the place to the death and it was custom to wash and dress their hair with special care when they intended to put their lives in great danger. Xerxes who did not believe Demaratus, delayed his attack for four days (probably waiting for the entire invasion force to catch up to them), thinking that the Greeks as soon as they would realise his great forces would disperse.

Click on image to enlarge to get a better idea what they were up against.

He sent heralds to the opposition force requesting that they deliver up their arms. The answer from Leonidas was as Laconic as the Spartans are famous for, no long winded speeches just a few words that sumed up their intentions.
'Molon labe' (come and take them).
A Spartan; Dieneces, who was told about the great number of Persian soldiers, who with their arrows will conceal the sun, answered: 'Our Trachinian friend brings us excellent tidings. If the Medes darken the sun, we shall have our fight in the shade'.

At the fifth day Xerxes sent against them the Medes and Cissians [2], with orders to take them alive and bring them into his presence. The Medes rushed forward and charged the Greeks, but fell in vast numbers; others however took the places of the slain, and would not be beaten off, though they suffered terrible losses.

The Greek allied phalanx hit the advancing lines with devestating consequences, the soliders so tightly packed together that their shields overlapped leaving minimal gaps, long spears protuding out not only from those in the front but from those in the second, third, fourth, fifth and even sixth rows. Those in the seventh and eighth rows, ready to fill in any gaps that might occur had the added responcibility of pushing the front ranks in their back thus any clash resulted in the Persians being pushed back, this caused consternation for the barbarians on the battle field, not being able to establish any front against the Greeks.

So many long deadly spears thrusting outwards towards Persian necks slamming into them. Decades of Spartan military training has already taught them the weak spots of a soliders equipment and compared to Greek armour, the Persians were vastly inferior. Advancing against the phalanx a Persian might have a shield and helmet made of reeds, wood and cloth and he faced shields made of bronze and hard wood, the Greek's wore Corinthian helmets beaten into shape by a single sheet of bronze, leaving no seams. The Persians weapon of choice might include a spear and a short sword, advancing either at a run or in no particular order or cohesion.

 

Wave after wave they probed and pushed forward, only to face a thicket of death, the body count became uncountable, the ground giving way as the dead covered the battlefield. Onward they pushed foward, many more times they outnumbered the Greeks, but no matter how they tried the Greek phalanx refused to faulter, the ground becoming slippery, with blood, bile and waste the killing fields at the pass of Thermopylae, was fast becoming the massacre of the Medes.

 

In this way it became clear to all, and especially to the king, that though he had plenty of combatants, he had but very few warriors. The struggle, however, continued during the whole day.

Then silence, the barbarians withdrew, the king called forward his 'Immortals' (in reality they were called 'Companions') lead by Hydarnes. Out of his entire army they had the closest to superior armour and weapons. They moved forward and the Lacedaemonians waiting patiently for them.

 

The two armies fought in a narrow space, the Persian's numbers nullified by the confinement. The Spartans ripped through their lines but for every one they killed another would rise to take his spot (thus 'Immortals').

 

Spartan military tactics were employed during the fighting. The call would come and the Spartans would retreat! At which the barbarians would rush after them with much noise and shouting, when suddenly the Spartans would wheel around and face their pursuers, in this way they destroyed even more vast numbers. Some Spartans likewise fell, but only a few.

 

Xerxes, who was watching from his throne, would leap out of his seat in terror as he witnessed the onslaught.

 

After a day of battle, at last the call came for the Persians to withdraw, finding that all their efforts to gain the pass came to nothing. Whether they attacked by division or in any other way, it was to no purpose, they withdrew to their camp.

 

The next day the Persian took to the pass again with renewed vigor. Xerxes knew the Greeks were so few and hopefully disabled, tired, weary by reason of their wounds, so they once more attacked.

 

The Greek lined up in detachments according to their cities, and bore the brunt of the battle in turns.

 

From the back, whips cracked and the barbarians howled at their men to 'Go forward' and like cattle they did. Faced with the spears of an armoured hedgehog those at the front cryed 'Go back'. The Persians found no better success, they could not get through the pass, the more they pushed, the more the Greeks stood firm, many Persians falling to their death over the ridge onto the rocks below, pushed by their own men behind and facing a phalanx of spears ahead. The massacre continued all day.

 

The nations from Asia and Africa decending into Greece and now at the front gate, not one man could get through. The king was in a great strait, and knew not how he should deal with the emergency.

 

Xerxes was desperate but his luck changed when a Malian named Ephialtes told him about a secret path across the mountain. Immediately a strong Persian force was sent with Hyrdanes, guided by the traitor. At day's break they reached the summit, where the Phocian army was stationed and who upon seeing the Persians fled to a crest of a mountain and got ready for a battle. The Persians understanding the situation, left the Phocians at the crest and ascended the mountain, to gain access behind the Greek line.

 

The Greeks had received warning from a seer called Megistias, who read their fate in the victims he was sacrificing. Some deserters came in and brought the news that the Persians were marching round the hill; it was still night when these men arrived. Scouts came running down the hill bringing the same account.

Artwork by Kostas Nikellis <kosv01@otenet.gr>

 

When Leonidas learned all these incidents, he ordered the council of war to be summoned. Many were of the opinion that they should retire or find a better defendable place. Part of the troops departed and went their ways homeward to their several states. Nobody questioned if the Spartans would leave their post, this was not a question that they needed an answer to.

 

There is strong evidence to suggest Leonidas sent away the troops. The Oracle had previously declared that a Spartan King must die or the Persians would conquer Sparta {O11}. The 300 Spartan guards he took with him were specially hand picked as being fathers to sons in Sparta, the family line of every Spartan there would live on, there was no reason that others had to die as well. Thermopylae was the place where Hercules had died, thowing himself into the water as he burnt with fire, the site became know as "the hot gates", due to the thermal springs: The Spartans believed they were a direct descendant of Hercules. They would die here as the Oracle, Sparta and the Hercule's blood line demanded. Megistias did receive orders to flee, he refused, but did allow his son to depart. Thus this story is true as the son relates.

So the orders were given and the allies departed. Only the Thespians and the Thebans[3] remained with the Spartans; refusing to retreat, and declaring that they would not forsake Leonidas and his followers. Leonidas looked at what remained of his force with the dout affection of all last-ditch commanders; 'Have a good breakfast men, for we dine in Hades!' Two of the Spartans were suffering from inflammation of the eyes (probably from the dust kicked up in the air), one of them, hearing of the last-ditch stand, told his Helot servant to lead him to the front rank where, nearly blind as he was, he would still be able to strike out and take at least one or more of the enemy with him. The helot did this then turned and fled.

 

Before the body of Persians, who were crossing the mountain under Hydarnes could attack him in the rear and hopeless now of preserving their lives, and anxious only to sell them dearly, Leonidas did not wait the Persian attack, which had been delayed by Xerxes and advanced in the path, and here he fell upon the Persians. Advancing to the more open portion of the pass, here he had held the station at the wall, and from this had gone forth to battle beyond the defile, and carried slaughter amongst the barbarians, who fell in heaps.

 

Behind the captains of the squadrons, armed with whips, urged their men forward with continual blows. Many were thrust into the sea, and there perished; a still greater number were trampled to death by their own soldiers; no one heeded the dying. For the Greeks, reckless of their own safety and desperate, as the mountain had been crossed, their destruction was immenent, exerted themselves with most furious valour against the barbarians.

 

Thousands slain, two the Persian's kings brothers fought and fell, numbers driven into the sea, but when the Spartan spears broke, they started having losses and one of the first that fell was King Leonidas.

 

 

Around his body one of the fiercest battles took place. Four times the Persians attacked to obtain it and four times were denied [4]. At the end, the Spartans exhausted and wounded, carrying the body of Leonidas, retired behind the wall, and posted themselves on a hill lock. With the demise of the Spartan king and most of the Thespians and Thebans now dead, the last of their remnants surrendered.

 

The Spartan hoplite force fort on and defended themselves to the last, such that still had swords the others throwing rocks and using their hands and teeth.

 

At last they were encircled upon every side, with Xerxes army jeering to cut them to ribbons, Xerxes did a unfortunate thing and ordered that they all be showered with 'thrown things' (arrows, javlins, rocks etc). This could not have put faith in his followers who might have thought that the king didn't want to risk any more of his men.

As the army filed past the head of Leonidas that was nailed to a cross, they must of thought that their task was nearly at hand, just a few days march and the city of Athens would be theirs, and still somewhere up ahead; Sparta.

 

 

Note: Herodotus claims Xerxes had brought 5 million to the battle but this can hardly be true. Believed to be a mistake, Greeks who were use to battles of at most ten thousand had never seen so many people before (Xerxes had brought Asia with him), the claim of 5 million would be like someone today saying 'there was millions of them', a number that is given when you don't really know. Diodorus says that the Persian land army alone was a million men ^[1].

This web site goes with the idea that Herodotus calculation for the word 'myriad' is the key. In Ancient Greece that word would have meant 10,000 while in the east it meant a fighting force of 1,000. So, while he states 5 million, we believe it closer to 500,000. If his sources were therefor Persian, the mistake would have been made.Any retreived archive records or interigation of prisoners revealing 500 myriad would have caused the confusion.

 

cont...Battle of Artemisium

 

 

MAP OF THERMOPYLAE 480 BC

Topics of discussion

Why didn't Leonidas send an assassin to try and kill King Darius during the ordeal?
The Spartans were well known for their stealth and ability to work alone and live off the land. Sending an assasin to try to work his way into the Persian camp and kill the king seems like a viable option. However, Herodotus does not mention it and Diodorus says on the last day after the Spartans realised they were surrounded did they make an all out attempt to reach the kings tent.
So it seems doubtful that any attempt was made otherwise Herodotus who immortalises Leonidas in his work would have mentioned it and Diodorus' last day attempt seems doubtful that a small band of maybe 500 men could have made their way past tens of thousands to get to the kings camp, shades of the Illiad here.
In essence Leonidas was a Spartan military man through and through, he left Sparta with the orders to hold the pass at Themopylae. In the epitath written by Simonidas about the Spartans, one of the lines reads 'here obidiant to the laws we lie'. He carried out his orders to the letter, he had to hold the pass, not attack the king.

What were the Spartan military strategies during the battle? The pass had to be held, the Spartans did what they did best in war.
SCORCHED EARTH: Leonidas put in place a scorched earth policy, so that before the Persians arrived at Themopylae the Greeks went out and destroyed all livestock, grain, buildings and fouled the water supply. When the Persians arrived with their large army, they found that they could not live off the land but had to rely on food being sent to them from concequered lands, not a desirable situation to be in when your food scorce is based on city-states that would like to see you loose.
FIELD: In brief the landscape of Themopylae made it a vast sheer mountain on the Spartan left and a cliff face looking down at rocks on the right.
PHALANX: Tightly packing hoplites formed a human hedgehog of spears that made it madness for a soldier, even in a division to run head long into.
SIGNPOSTS: Leonidas put up three signposts that were obvious to the Greeks but not known to the Persians. The furthest one was a rock that looked like a lion, so it was known as the Lions Gate. When orders were given they were told where to march to, but go no further. They would march upto whichever signpost they were ordered to but advance no more, but return back to their original starting point and start again. So, they were not to be drawn out into the open field, where they would be disadvantaged.
RETREAT: A call would come either when reaching the designated signpost or from the pipes and the Greek hoplites would turn and flee, with the intention of starting back where they had started from and getting better ground advantage. This move also through the Persians off and thought the Greeks were fleeing the field, so they started to chase them, loosing all formation and only to find the Greeks return to their initial starting spot wheel around and start again.
THE BENCH: Periodically, the Greeks would rest their men and allow other city-states to line up and be responsible in the pass. So they had the ability to keep men fresh to take to the field with renewed vigor and allow the tired and injured a break.
THE PHOKIS WALL: Many ideas have been put foward about what the benefit of the Phokis wall was. The two leading theories are 1: The wall was behind the Greek army in the pass and therefor allowed Leonidas, the Generals and archers the ability to see what was ahead of the Greek army and issue orders. 2: The wall somehow inhibited the invading army and funelled them into a narrower place that allowed the Greeks to have an even better advantage.

Why didn't the Greeks or Spartans send more men to defend Themopylae?
The Spartans promised more men were to follow, but never sent any, maybe they had a plan to send more men, but as the situation became clear that the sheer number of men made it incredibly risky, none were sent, and the policy of holding back what they did have to the ishmus became desirable. If the Spartans were not going to send more men, the rest of the Peloponnese were not. The Athenians would have sent all their available men to the fleet and indeed they did hold the most ships in the navy.

Over how many days did the battle take place?
While the Greeks got prepared over a number of days, the actual battle took place over two days with the final stand taking place on day three. The fact that the timeframe was 3 days had lead some historians to suggest that because of this the battle has to be considered under the banner of 'the power of 3'.

If not for Ephialtes' actions could the stand at Themopylae have been won by the Greeks?
Probably not. For that to have happend more reinforcements would have had to be needed from the Greeks and there is nothing to suggest that was going to be. Even if the Persians did not round the pass to get behind them, just by sheer numbers alone they would have ultimatly been able to wear them down.

Did Ephialtes contribute towards the final Greek victory over Persia by his actions?
Ephialtes information to the king is ultimatley the linch pin that leads to the beginning of the downfall of the Persian invasion. It is this 'anybody can be bought' or 'everyone for himself' that the king believes in that he trusts Ephialtes and pays off dividens. It was Ephialtes a Greek who betrayed Leonidas. Later, that master military tactician Themistocles who understands the pschye of the king sends an informant to give the Perian king information about the Greek fleet abandoning their position at Salamis. The king swallows this whole heartedly, just another Greek betraying another Greek, he might have thought. And he seperates his competent Egyptian division to bottle the Greeks in and has a good portion of the rest of his navy on alert during the night for that ineviatble Greek escape. The next morning after a good nights sleep from the Greeks and the battle is on. The Persians less the Egyptian division and weary staying awake all night, are automatically in a undesirable position. The reason for this is ultimatley tied in with what Ephialtes did at Themopylae.

---

References:

'Histories' by Herodotus published by Wordsworth 1996
'The Greco-Persian Wars' by Peter Green published by University of California Press 1998

Other Notes:
Logo banner and artwork by Kostas Nikellis <kosv01@otenet.gr>

Art references
Jacques-Louis David - Leonidas at Thermopylae 1814 A.D. at the Louvre Museum

---

 

---